Brief Contents
Chapter 1 Knowledge and Beliefs about Reading 1
Chapter 2 Approaches to Reading Instruction 31
Chapter 3 Meeting the Literacy Needs of Diverse Learners 52
Chapter 4 Foundations of Language and Literacy 76
Chapter 5 Assessing Reading Performance 112
Chapter 6 Word Identification 150
Chapter 7 Reading Fluency 187
Chapter 8 Vocabulary Knowledge and Concept Development 212
Chapter 9 Comprehending Narrative Text 246
Chapter 10 Comprehending Informational Text 275
Chapter 11 Reading—Writing Connections 311
Chapter 12 Bringing Children and Text Together 342
Chapter 13 Instructional Materials 369
Table of Contents
Features xii
Preface xiv
1 Knowledge and Beliefs About Reading 1
The Importance of Belief Systems 4
Different Beliefs, Different Instructional Decisions 5
Differing Instructional Decisions 5
Reading Instruction and Teachers’ Belief Systems 7
National Initiatives 7
Teacher Preparation 9
Transliteracy 9
Multiple Approaches to Reading Instruction 11
How Teachers Come to Know About Reading and Learning to Read 13
Constructing Personal Knowledge 13
Constructing Practical Knowledge 14
Constructing Professional Knowledge and Expertise 14
Perspectives on Learning to Read 16
Cognitive Insights into Reading and Learning to Read 17
The Alphabetic Principle and Learning to Read 17
Schema Theory and Reading Comprehension 19
Metacognition and Learning 20
Reading from a Language Perspective 22
Psycholinguistics and Reading 23
Sociolinguistics and Reading 24
Models of Reading 25
Bottom-Up Models 26
Top-Down Models 27
Interactive Models 28
RTI for Struggling Readers 28
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Knowledge and Beliefs about Reading? 29
Summary 29
Teacher Action Research 29
Through the Lens of the Common Core 30
2 Approaches to Reading Instruction 31
Belief Systems and Approaches to Literacy Instruction 33
Beliefs About Reading 34
Curriculum Perspectives 36
Bottom-Up Curricula 38
Readers and Textbooks 38
Top-Down Curricula 38
Classroom Conditions for Learning 40
Instructional Approaches 41
The Basal Reading Approach 42
The Language-Experience Approach 42
Literature-Based Instruction Approaches 43
Technology-Based Instruction 44
Technology-Based Instructional
Considerations 45
Individualizing Instruction 46
The Integrated Approach 47
Expertise Matters More than Approach 47
RTI for Struggling Readers 49
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Approaches to Reading Instruction? 50
Summary 50
Teacher Action Research 50
Through the Lens of the Common Core 51
3 Meeting the Literacy Needs of Diverse Learners 52
Linguistic Diversity in Literacy Classrooms 54
Instructional Beliefs About Linguistic Diversity 55
Instructional Principles for Students Speaking Diverse Languages and Dialects 55
Instructional Strategies for Students Speaking Diverse Languages 57
Sheltered English Adaptations 57
Instructional Conversations 58
Response Protocol 58
Wordless Books 59
Content Area Practices 60
Dialects 61
Code-Switching 61
Dialectical Miscues 62
Cultural Diversity in Literacy Classrooms 62
Instructional Beliefs About Cultural Diversity 62
Instructional Principles for Students from Diverse Cultures 64
Instructional Strategies for Culturally Diverse Students 64
Determining Cultural Expectations 64
Background Knowledge and Motivation 64
Using Culturally Responsive Read-Alouds 65
Choosing Quality Multicultural Literature 65
Fostering Ethnic, National, and Global Identification 66
Technology-Enhanced Instruction 66
Academic and Cognitive Diversity in Literacy Classrooms 67
Instructional Beliefs About Academic and Cognitive Diversity 67
Instructional Principles for Academic and Cognitive Diversity 68
Inclusion 68
Curriculum Compacting 69
Differentiated Instruction 69
Instructional Strategies for Students with Diverse Academic and Cognitive Abilities 70
Multisensory Phonics Strategies 70
Technology-Based Diagnostic Strategies 70
Inquiry Learning 71
Transliteracies 71
RTI for Struggling Readers 73
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Diversity? 74
Summary 74
Teacher Action Research 74
Through the Lens of the Common Core 75
4 Foundations of Language and Literacy 76
Literacy Development 78
How Oral Language Develops 78
How Reading Develops 80
Phase 1: Awareness and Exploration 80
Phase 2: Experimental Reading and Writing 80
Phase 3: Early Reading and Writing 81
Phase 4: Transitional Reading and Writing 81
Phase 5: Independent and Productive Reading and Writing 81
How Writing Develops 82
The Importance of Scribbling 82
Oral Language and Vocabulary 85
Phonological Awareness 86
Alphabet Knowledge 86
Developmental Writing 86
Print Knowledge 87
Literate Learning Environments 87
Creating Literate Learning Environments at Home 87
Creating Literate Environments in the Classroom 88
Design of the Classroom Environment 88
Literacy-Related Play Centers 90
Facilitating Language and Literacy 92
Learning About Literacy Through Books 92
Storybooks 92
Nonfiction Books 93
Big Books 94
E-Books 94
Class-Made Books 96
Steps to Follow in Producing Language-Experience Stories 97
Having Students Dictate Stories 97
Learning About the Relationships Between Speech and Print 99
Learning About Features of Written Language 100
Learning About Letters and Sounds 100
Recognizing Letters 101
Phonological Awareness 102
Phonemic Awareness 102
Developing Phonemic Awareness in Children 103
Assessing Language and Literacy in Young Children 105
Assessing Print Knowledge 106
Assessing Alphabet Knowledge 106
Assessing Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Awareness 107
Assessing Developmental Writing 109
RTI for Struggling Readers 109
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Beginning Readers and Writers? 110
Summary 110
Teacher Action Research 111
Through the Lens of the Common Core 111
5 Assessing Reading Performance 112
Toward a Collaborative Framework for Decision Making 114
Trends in Assessment 115
High-Stakes Testing 116
Authentic Assessment 118
Technology in Assessment 120
Formal Assessment 121
Standardized Tests 121
Types of Test Scores 122
Types of Tests 123
Uses of Standardized Test Results 124
Criterion-Referenced Tests 125
Informal Assessment 126
Informal Reading Inventories 126
Administering an IRI 127
Recording Oral Reading Errors 127
Determining Reading Levels 128
Analyzing Oral Reading Miscues 129
Running Records 133
Administering a Running Record 134
Analyzing Running Records 135
Kidwatching While Teaching 137
Anecdotal Notes 138
Checklists 139
Interviewing 140
Other Informal Assessments 141
Portfolio Assessment 142
Essential Elements of Portfolios 143
Implementing Portfolios in the Classroom 143
Assessment Today and Tomorrow 145
RTI for Struggling Readers 147
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Reading Performance? 147
Summary 148
Teacher Action Research 148
Through the Lens of the Common Core 149
6 Word Identification 150
Defining Word Identification 152
Phases of Development in Children’s Ability to Identify Words 154
Approaches and Guidelines for Teaching Phonics 156
Traditional Approaches 157
Analytic Phonics Instruction 157
Synthetic Phonics Instruction 157
Syllables 158
Contemporary Approaches 159
Analogy-Based Phonics Instruction 160
Embedded Phonics Instruction 160
Guidelines for Contemporary Phonics Instruction 161
Strategies for Teaching Phonics 162
Consonant-Based Strategies 162
Multisensory Activities 162
Consonant Substitution 163
Flip Books 163
Making Words 163
Word Ladders 164
Cube Words 164
Analogic-Based Strategies 165
Poetry 166
Making and Writing Words Using Letter Patterns 166
Spelling-Based Strategies 166
Word Banks 166
Word Walls 167
Word Sorting 167
Using Meaning and Letter–Sound Information to Identify Words 168
Strategies for Teaching Context 168
Cloze Passages 169
Cloze with Choices Given 169
Guessing Games 170
Semantic Gradients and Context Clues 170
Cross-Checking and Self-Monitoring Strategies 171
Using Structural Analysis to Identify Words 173
Strategies for Teaching Structural Analysis 173
Word Study Notebook 173
Wall Chart Carousel 174
Compound Word Cups 174
Contraction Search 174
Rapid Recognition of Words 175
High-Frequency Words 175
Teaching Function Words 178
Incremental Rehearsal 178
Language-Experience Strategy 178
Word Walls 179
Environmental Print 179
Word Games 179
Literature and Poetry 179
Teaching Key Words 179
Group Activities with Key Words 179
Organizing Word Identification Instruction 180
Principle 1 180
Principle 2 181
Principle 3 181
Balancing Word Identification Instruction 182
RTI for Struggling Readers 184
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Word Identification? 184
Summary 185
Teacher Action Research 186
Through the Lens of the Common Core 186
7 Reading Fluency 187
Defining Oral Reading Fluency 189
Accuracy in Word Decoding 190
Automatic Processing 191
Prosody 191
Predictability of Reading Materials 192
Developing Oral Reading Fluency 192
Strategies for Groups of Students 194
Choral Reading 194
Echo Reading 195
Fluency-Oriented Reading Instruction (FORI) 195
Reader’s Theater 196
Fluency Idol 198
Strategies for Pairs and Individual Students 198
Repeated Readings 198
Paired Repeated Readings 199
The Fluency Development Lesson 200
Peer Tutoring 201
Automated Reading 201
The Oral Recitation Lesson 202
Involving Parents 203
What Parents Can Do to Help at Home 204
Assessing Oral Reading Fluency 205
Accuracy and Automaticity 205
Prosody 206
Silent Reading Fluency 208
Developing Silent Reading Fluency 208
RTI for Struggling Readers 210
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Reading
Fluency? 210
Summary 211
Teacher Action Research 211
Through the Lens of the Common Core 211
8 Vocabulary Knowledge and Concept Development 212
The Relationship Between Vocabulary and Comprehension 215
Experiences, Concepts, and Words 216
Words as Labels for Concepts 217
Words and Concepts: A Closer Look 218
Class, Example, and Attribute Relationships 219
Principles to Guide Vocabulary Instruction 221
Principle 1: Select Words That Children Will Encounter While Reading Text and Content Material 221
Key Words 221
Useful Words 222
Interesting Words 222
Vocabulary-Building Words 222
Principle 2: Teach Words in Relation to Other Words 222
Principle 3: Teach Students to Relate Words to Their Background Knowledge 223
Principle 4: Teach Words in Prereading Activities to Activate Knowledge and Use Them in Postreading Discussion, Response, and Retelling 224
Principle 5: Teach Words Systematically and in Depth 225
Principle 6: Awaken Interest in and Enthusiasm for Words 226
Best Practice: Strategies for Vocabulary and Concept Development 227
Relating Experiences to Vocabulary Learning 228
Using Context for Vocabulary Growth 228
Developing Word Meanings 229
Synonyms 229
Antonyms 230
Words with Multiple Meanings 231
Classifying and Categorizing Words 231
Word Sorts 232
Categorization 233
Concept Circles 233
Semantic Mapping 234
Analogies 235
Paired-Word Sentence Generation 237
Developing Word Meanings Through Stories and Writing 237
Semantic Analysis to Writing 238
Predictogram 240
Developing Independence in Vocabulary Learning 240
Dictionary Usage 241
Self-Selection Strategy 242
Word Knowledge Rating 242
RTI for Struggling Readers 243
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Vocabulary
Development? 244
Summary 244
Teacher Action Research 245
Through the Lens of the Common Core 245
9 Comprehending Narrative Text 246
Developing Readers’ Awareness of Story Structure 248
Elements in a Story 249
Mapping a Story for Instructional Purposes 249
Building a Schema for Stories 251
Read, Tell, and Perform Stories in Class 251
Show Relationships Between Story Parts 251
Reinforce Story Knowledge Through Instructional Activities 251
Scaffolding the Development and Teaching of Reading Comprehension Strategies 254
Active Comprehension and Asking Questions 255
Reciprocal Questioning (ReQuest) 258
Question–Answer Relationships (QARs) 259
Questioning the Author (QtA) 260
Close Reading 263
Reciprocal Teaching 265
Think-Alouds 265
Guiding Interactions Between Reader and Text 267
Directed Reading–Thinking Activity 267
Discussion Webs 268
Text Connections 270
Text-to-Self 270
Text-to-Text 270
Text-to-World 270
Technology and Twenty-First-Century Reading Comprehension Skills 271
RTI for Struggling Readers 272
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Reading Comprehension? 273
Summary 274
Teacher Action Research 274
Through the Lens of the Common Core 274
10 Comprehending Informational Text 275
What Is Informational Text, and What Makes It Challenging? 279
Factors in Judging the Difficulty of Textbooks and Other Informational Text 281
How Difficult Is the Text to Understand? 281
How Usable Is the Informational Text? 281
How Interesting Is the Informational Text? 282
Readability and Text Complexity 283
Organizing Informational Text Instruction 284
Informational Text Circles 284
Jigsaw 285
Jigsaw Strategy in an Elementary Classroom 286
Idea Sketches 287
Sticky-Note Folders 288
Using Literature and Nonfiction Trade Books Across the Curriculum 289
Benefits of Using Literature and Nonfiction Trade Books 290
Intense Involvement 291
Schema Building 291
Abilities and Interests 291
Vocabulary Building 292
Instructional Strategies for Engaging Students in Reading Informational Text Prior to Reading 293
Determining the Structure of Informational Text 293
Frame of Reference 295
Skimming 296
Organizers 296
Anticipation Guides 296
Brainstorming 297
Extending Content Learning Through Reading and Writing 298
Close Reading 298
Focus on Close Reading 298
KWL 299
Point-of-View Guides 300
Idea Circles 302
Curriculum-Based Reader’s Theater 302
Using Think-Alouds 303
Digital Literacy 305
Informational Text and the Internet 306
Internet Inquiry 306
Online Reading Comprehension Skills 307
RTI for Struggling Readers 307
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Content Area Texts? 308
Summary 309
Teacher Action Research 309
Through the Lens of the Common Core 310
11 Reading–Writing Connections 311
Relationships Between Reading and Writing 313
The Writing–Spelling Connection 314
Invented Spelling 314
Later Developmental Spelling Phases 315
Creating Environments for Reading and Writing 315
Encouraging Classroom Writing 316
Connecting Reading and Writing 318
Using Journals (and E-Mail Correspondence) for Written Conversation 319
Dialogue Journals 319
Buddy Journals 320
Electronic Mail (E-Mail) Conversations 320
Using Journals to Explore Texts 320
Double-Entry Journals 321
Reading Journals 323
Response Journals 323
Alternative Strategies That Motivate Students to Write 324
Gathering Ideas 324
Multigenre Projects 325
Writing Nonfiction 325
Plot Scaffolds 325
Organizing Writing Instruction 327
The Writing Process 327
Brainstorming 328
Drafting 328
Revising 328
Editing 329
Publishing 329
The Qualities of Exemplary Writing 331
The Writing Workshop 333
A Day in the Life of Our Writing Workshop 335
Guided Writing Instruction 335
Reading–Writing–Technology Connections 336
Electronic Text Production and Publishing 336
Online Communications 337
Online Resources for Writing 337
RTI for Struggling Readers 339
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Reading–Writing Connections? 339
Summary 340
Teacher Action Research 340
Through the Lens of the Common Core 341
12 Bringing Children and Text Together 342
Supporting a Community of Readers 344
Surrounding Children with Text 347
Selecting a Classroom Collection of Books 347
Choosing Classroom Texts 348
Determining Good Text 349
Text with Multicultural Perspectives 350
Designing the Classroom Library 351
Listening to Text 352
Choosing Texts to Read Aloud 352
Preparing to Read Aloud 353
Setting the Mood 353
Introducing the Story 354
Activities After Reading Aloud 354
Storytelling 354
Selecting the Story to Tell 354
Preparing a Story for Telling 355
Helping Students Select Books 356
Organizing for Text-Based Instruction 357
Core Books 357
Literature Units 358
Literature Circles 358
Student-Led Literature Circles: How and What to Share 359
Adapting Literature Circles for the
Primary Grades 360
Media Literacy 360
Integration of the Internet 361
Encouraging Responses to Text 362
Sparking Discussion with Book-Talks 364
Engaging in Free Response 364
Exploring Response Options in Literature Journals 365
RTI for Struggling Readers 366
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Text? 367
Summary 367
Teacher Action Research 368
Through the Lens of the Common Core 368
13 Instructional Materials 369
Basal Readers 372
A Look Back 372
Anatomy of Basal Readers 373
Student Books 374
Leveled Readers 374
Teacher’s Editions 374
Workbooks 375
Assessments 375
Technology and Online Learning 375
Intervention 376
Making Instructional Decisions with Basals 376
Trade Books 378
The Case for Trade Books 378
Leveling Trade Books 379
Technology 379
Electronic Books 381
Online Games 382
Online Word Processors 382
Apps 382
Evaluating Reading Materials 383
RTI for Struggling Readers 386
What About: Standards, Assessment, and Instructional Materials? 387
Summary 387
Teacher Action Research 387
Through the Lens of the Common Core 388
Appendix A Beliefs About Reading Interview 389
Appendix B Text and Phonics 394
Appendix C Recommended Books for
Multicultural Reading Experiences 395
Glossary 401
References 408
Name Index 428
Subject Index 433
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