Preface |
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viii | (5) |
Acknowledgments |
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xiii | |
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1 INTRODUCTION: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY |
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1 | (33) |
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1.1 Thermodynamics: A Science of Measurable Quantities |
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2 | (4) |
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1.2 Conservation of Energy in Mechanics |
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4 | (2) |
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1.3 Conservation of Energy: A System of Point Masses |
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6 | (4) |
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1.4 A Few Examples of Energy Conservation |
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10 | (1) |
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1.5 Kinetic Energy Exchanges in Molecular Collisions |
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10 | (6) |
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16 | (5) |
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A Simple Example of Working |
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18 | (3) |
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1.7 Some Necessary Thermodynamic Concepts and Jargon |
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21 | (1) |
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1.8 Thermodynamic Internal Energy and the First Law |
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22 | (7) |
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Some Irreverent Thoughts About Heat |
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24 | (5) |
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Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading |
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29 | (1) |
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30 | (4) |
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2 IDEAL GAS LAW: PRESSURE AND ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE |
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34 | (55) |
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2.1 Gas Pressure and Absolute Temperature: What Are They? |
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35 | (19) |
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36 | (4) |
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40 | (3) |
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Pressure Measurement: Barometer and Manometer |
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43 | (2) |
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Temperature Scales and Thermometers |
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45 | (2) |
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Atmospheric Temperature Measurements |
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47 | (2) |
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A Linguistic Sin of Meteorologists: Repent! |
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49 | (1) |
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The Nature of Statistical Laws |
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49 | (2) |
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51 | (3) |
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2.2 Pressure Decrease with Height: Continuum Approach |
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54 | (4) |
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Thickness: A Surrogate for Average Temperature |
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58 | (1) |
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2.3 Pressure Decrease with Height: Molecular Approach |
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59 | (1) |
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2.4 The Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution of Molecular Speeds |
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60 | (6) |
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Why Don't Air Molecules Escape to Space? |
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64 | (2) |
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2.5 Intermolecular Separation, Mean Free Path, and Collision Rate |
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66 | (5) |
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67 | (2) |
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Intermolecular Collision Rate |
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69 | (1) |
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Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium |
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70 | (1) |
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2.6 Is the Pressure Gradient a Fundamental Force of Nature? |
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71 | (1) |
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2.7 Surface Pressure and Weight of the Atmosphere |
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72 | (2) |
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73 | (1) |
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Why Aren't We Crushed by Airplanes Flying Overhead? |
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73 | (1) |
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2.8 The Atmosphere Is a Mixture of Gases: Dalton's Law |
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74 | (5) |
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75 | (4) |
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Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading |
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79 | (2) |
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81 | (8) |
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3 SPECIFIC HEATS AND ENTHALPY: ADIABATIC PROCESSES |
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89 | (46) |
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3.1 A Critical Discussion of the Mathematics of Thermodynamics |
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89 | (10) |
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Those Accursed Differentials |
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93 | (4) |
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Differentials and Infinitesimals |
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97 | (1) |
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Are Differentials Necessary in Thermodynamics? |
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97 | (2) |
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3.2 Specific Heats and Enthalpy |
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99 | (7) |
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An Incompressibility Paradox: The Perils of Idealization |
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104 | (1) |
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Enthalpy of the (Hydrostatic) Atmosphere |
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105 | (1) |
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3.3 Adiabatic Processes: Poisson's Relations |
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106 | (2) |
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3.4 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate |
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108 | (3) |
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Do Pistons and Cylinders Inhabit the Atmosphere? |
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109 | (2) |
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3.5 Stability and Buoyancy |
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111 | (3) |
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112 | (2) |
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Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate and Stability |
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114 | (1) |
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3.6 Specific Heats of Gas Molecules |
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114 | (9) |
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The Ratio of Working to Heating at Constant Pressure |
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120 | (3) |
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3.7 Heat Capacities of Mixtures of Gases |
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123 | (4) |
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123 | (1) |
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Isobaric, Adiabatic Mixing of Moist Parcels |
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124 | (3) |
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Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading |
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127 | (1) |
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127 | (8) |
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135 | (46) |
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4.1 Entropy of an Ideal Gas |
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136 | (19) |
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Entropy Change In a Free Expansion |
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137 | (1) |
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Entropy Changes Upon Heating and Cooling |
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138 | (7) |
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The Second Law and Stability |
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145 | (1) |
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Entropy of Mixtures; Entropy of Mixing and Gibbs's Paradox |
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146 | (2) |
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Entropy Changes Upon Mixing of Two Gases With Different Temperatures and Pressures |
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148 | (1) |
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An Entropic Derivation of Joule's Law |
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149 | (1) |
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Entropy and Disorder: A Persistent Swindle |
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150 | (2) |
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Integrating Factor and Entropy |
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152 | (3) |
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4.2 Entropy Changes of Liquids and Solids |
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155 | (2) |
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4.3 Potential Temperature: Meteorologists' Entropy |
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157 | (4) |
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159 | (2) |
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4.4 Atmospheric Applications of the Second Law |
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161 | (16) |
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Entropy Maximization in the Atmosphere |
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164 | (5) |
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Entropy Maximization in the Atmosphere: General Case |
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169 | (2) |
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Thermodynamic Efficiency: The Carnot Cycle |
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171 | (4) |
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Entropic Derivation of the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate |
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175 | (2) |
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Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading |
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177 | (1) |
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178 | (3) |
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5 WATER AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS |
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181 | (91) |
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5.1 Evaporation and Condensation of Water Vapor |
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182 | (3) |
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5.2 Measures of Water Vapor in Air |
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185 | (7) |
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Dew, Frost, Defrosters, Dehumidifiers, and Swamp Coolers |
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188 | (4) |
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5.3 The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation |
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192 | (12) |
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Other Enthalpy Differences |
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195 | (1) |
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Entropy and Enthalpy Differences in Phase Changes |
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196 | (1) |
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Temperature Dependence of Enthalpy of Vaporization |
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197 | (1) |
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Temperature Dependence of Saturation Vapor Pressure: A More Accurate Equation |
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197 | (3) |
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Difference Between the Saturation Vapor Pressure Above Ice and Above Subcooled Water at the Same Temperature |
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200 | (2) |
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Dew Points and Human Comfort |
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202 | (1) |
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Lapse Rate of the Boiling Point |
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203 | (1) |
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5.4 van der Waals Equation of State |
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204 | (14) |
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Must a Liquid Boil in Order to Evaporate? |
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214 | (1) |
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Can a Solid Boil Before it Melts? |
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215 | (1) |
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Departures From Ideality According to the van der Waals Equation |
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215 | (1) |
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The Maxwell Construction and Saturation Vapor Pressure |
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216 | (2) |
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An Overview of the Many Successes of the van der Waals Equation |
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218 | (1) |
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5.5 Phase Diagrams: Liquid-Vapor; Liquid-Solid-Vapor; Triple Point |
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218 | (5) |
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223 | (3) |
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5.7 Effect of Air Pressure on Saturation Vapor Pressure |
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226 | (3) |
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5.8 Lowering of Vapor Pressure by Dissolution |
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229 | (4) |
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5.9 Air in Water: Henry's Law |
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233 | (5) |
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Change in Saturation Vapor Pressure with Total Pressure |
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237 | (1) |
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5.10 Size Dependence of Vapor Pressure: Droplets and Bubbles |
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238 | (14) |
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Droplet Vapor Pressure: The Kelvin Equation |
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239 | (4) |
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243 | (4) |
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Mechanical Equilibrium of Bubbles and Droplets: The Laplace Equation |
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247 | (3) |
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Boiling Demystified and More Heresy |
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250 | (2) |
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5.11 Vapor Pressure of Solution Droplets |
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252 | (4) |
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Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading |
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256 | (4) |
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260 | (12) |
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272 | (63) |
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6.1 Precipitable Water in the Atmosphere |
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272 | (2) |
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6.2 Lapse Rate of the Dew Point: Level of Cloud Formation |
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274 | (4) |
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6.3 Density of Moist Air: Virtual Temperature |
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278 | (3) |
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281 | (6) |
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Is the Temperature of a Wet Bulb the Wet-Bulb Temperature? |
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285 | (1) |
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286 | (1) |
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6.5 Lapse Rate for Isentropic Ascent of a Saturated Parcel |
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287 | (12) |
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Equivalent Potential Temperature and Wet-Bulb Potential Temperature |
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292 | (7) |
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6.6 Thermodynamic Diagrams |
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299 | (12) |
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300 | (1) |
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301 | (6) |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (3) |
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6.7 Stability and Cloud Formation |
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311 | (11) |
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317 | (5) |
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322 | (2) |
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6.9 Cloud Formation on Ascent and Descent |
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324 | (3) |
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Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading |
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327 | (2) |
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329 | (6) |
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7 ENERGY, MOMENTUM, AND MASS TRANSFER |
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335 | (49) |
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335 | (31) |
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337 | (1) |
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338 | (2) |
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An Application of Thermal Resistance to Consumer Fraud |
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340 | (2) |
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Convective Transfer of Energy |
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342 | (1) |
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Conductivity of a Gas: A Few Myths Exploded |
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343 | (3) |
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The Effective Conductivity of Porous Materials |
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347 | (1) |
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348 | (2) |
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Newton's Law of Cooling: A Study in Error Propagation |
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350 | (4) |
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354 | (2) |
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Radiative Energy Transfer |
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356 | (1) |
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Radiation and Convection Combined: Dew and Frost Formation |
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357 | (2) |
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To Insulate or Not to Insulate? |
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359 | (1) |
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Radiation in Porous Media |
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360 | (2) |
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Newton's Law of Cooling According to Newton |
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362 | (1) |
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The Thermometer As a Low-pass Filter |
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363 | (1) |
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365 | (1) |
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7.2 Momentum Transfer: Viscosity |
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366 | (6) |
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7.3 Mass Transfer: Diffusion |
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372 | (7) |
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374 | (2) |
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376 | (3) |
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Selected References and Suggestions for Further Reading |
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379 | (1) |
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380 | (4) |
Selected Physical Constants |
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384 | (2) |
Bibliography |
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386 | (9) |
Index |
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395 | |