Environmental Chemistry
by Ibanez, Jorge G.; Hernandez-esparza, Margarita; Doria-serrano, Carmen; Fregoso-infante, Arturo; Singh, Mono MohanEdition: 1st
Format: Hardcover
Pub. Date: 2007-05-01
Publisher(s): Springer Nature
Other versions by this Author
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Summary
Environmental issues are growing in importance to the most important political, social, legal, and economic decisions. The book presents chemical analyses of our most pressing waste, pollution, and resource problems for the undergraduate or graduate student. The distinctive holistic approach provides both a solid ground in theory, as well as a laboratory manual detailing introductory and advanced experimental applications. The laboratory procedures are presented at microscale conditions, for minimum waste and maximum economy.This work fulfills an urgent need for an introductory text in environmental chemistry combining theory and practice, and is a valuable tool for preparing the next generation of environmental scientists.
Table of Contents
| Foreword | p. v |
| Preface | p. vii |
| Introductory Concepts | |
| Introduction to Environmental Chemistry | p. 3 |
| Chemistry of the Natural Processes in the Biosphere | p. 3 |
| Chemistry Associated with Pollution Processes | p. 4 |
| Chemistry Applied to the Analysis of Pollutants and Natural Compounds | p. 6 |
| Chemistry Applied to the Treatment and Remediation of Pollution | p. 8 |
| Green Chemistry | p. 8 |
| Importance of Environmental Chemistry | p. 9 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 10 |
| Chemistry Fundamentals, Part A | p. 11 |
| Chemical Equilibria | p. 11 |
| Equilibrium Values and Calculations | p. 12 |
| Exchange Reaction Equilibria: Systems of the Type ML[subscript n]/ML[subscript n-1]/...ML/M | p. 12 |
| Acid-Base Reactions | p. 15 |
| Acid-Base Characteristics of Common Chemical Species | p. 15 |
| Buffers | p. 16 |
| Acid/Base Character of Oxides | p. 21 |
| Redox Processes | p. 23 |
| Latimer Diagrams | p. 25 |
| Frost Diagrams | p. 27 |
| Nernst Equation | p. 27 |
| Pourbaix Diagrams | p. 28 |
| The pE Scale | p. 33 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 41 |
| Chemistry Fundamentals, Part B | p. 43 |
| Complexes and Complex Formation | p. 43 |
| Definition and Generalities | p. 43 |
| Modification of Properties of Metal Ions | p. 43 |
| Geometry of Metal Complexes | p. 46 |
| Inner and Outer Sphere Complexes | p. 47 |
| Mono and Polydentate Ligands. The HSAB Approach | p. 48 |
| The Chelate Effect | p. 48 |
| Reactions of Complexes | p. 50 |
| Ligand-Exchange Reactions | p. 50 |
| Electron-Exchange Reactions | p. 50 |
| Chemical Kinetics | p. 51 |
| Factors That Influence the Rate of a Mono Directional Reaction | p. 52 |
| Dependence of the Rate of Reaction on Concentrations: The Rate Law | p. 53 |
| The Rate Constant | p. 54 |
| Integrated Rate Equations | p. 54 |
| Zeroth-Order Reactions | p. 54 |
| First-Order Reactions | p. 54 |
| Second-Order Reactions | p. 55 |
| Higher-Order Reactions | p. 55 |
| Complex Reactions | p. 55 |
| Consecutive Reactions | p. 56 |
| Opposing (Reversible) Reactions | p. 56 |
| Parallel Reactions | p. 57 |
| The Steady-State Approximation | p. 57 |
| Catalysis | p. 57 |
| Kinetics of Metal-Complex Dissociation | p. 58 |
| Photochemical Processes | p. 59 |
| Photochemical Processes After the Absorption of Light | p. 59 |
| Beer's Law | p. 60 |
| Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Processes | p. 61 |
| Radiochemistry | p. 61 |
| Decay Kinetics | p. 62 |
| Units of Radiation | p. 63 |
| Detection Devices for Ionizing Radiations and Protection From Radiation | p. 64 |
| Geiger Counter or Ionization in Gas-Filled Tubes | p. 64 |
| Scintillation Device | p. 64 |
| Photographic Films | p. 64 |
| Semiconductors | p. 64 |
| Thermoluminescence | p. 64 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 64 |
| The Chemistry of Natural Environmental Processes | |
| The Chemistry of Processes in the Atmosphere | p. 69 |
| Air | p. 69 |
| How Did the Earth's Atmosphere Form? | p. 70 |
| Amounts of Constituents in the Atmosphere | p. 71 |
| Tropospheric Chemistry | p. 73 |
| Physical Principles of the Greenhouse Effect | p. 74 |
| Stratospheric Chemistry | p. 75 |
| Aerosols | p. 76 |
| Related Experiments in the Companion Book | p. 76 |
| Additional Related Experiments/Activities | p. 76 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 77 |
| The Chemistry of Processes in the Lithosphere | p. 78 |
| The Lithosphere and its Components | p. 78 |
| Structure of the Solid Earth | p. 78 |
| Core | p. 78 |
| Mantle | p. 78 |
| Crust | p. 78 |
| Classification of Rocks | p. 79 |
| Igneous Rocks | p. 79 |
| Sedimentary Rocks | p. 79 |
| Metamorphic Rocks | p. 80 |
| Rock-Forming Minerals | p. 80 |
| Formation and Differentiation of Minerals and Ores | p. 80 |
| Weathering | p. 81 |
| Physical Weathering | p. 81 |
| Chemical Weathering | p. 82 |
| Dissolution and Precipitation of Solids | p. 85 |
| Dissolution of Natural Oxides | p. 89 |
| Stable and Metastable Solid Phases | p. 90 |
| Biological Weathering | p. 92 |
| Soil Characteristics | p. 92 |
| Soil Taxonomy | p. 93 |
| Humic Substances (HS) | p. 93 |
| Decomposition of Organic Materials Adsorbed on Soil | p. 93 |
| Related Experiments in the Companion Book | p. 93 |
| Additional Related Experiments/Activities | p. 94 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 94 |
| The Chemistry of Processes in the Hydrosphere | p. 96 |
| Natural Waters: Types and Composition | p. 96 |
| Processes That Affect Water Composition | p. 96 |
| Rainwater | p. 98 |
| Surface Water | p. 99 |
| Stream and River Water | p. 101 |
| Lake Water | p. 103 |
| Groundwater | p. 105 |
| Seawater | p. 106 |
| Brackish/Saline Water | p. 107 |
| Interactions of Water with Air and Sediments; Effects on Aquatic Chemistry | p. 110 |
| Gas Dissolution and Acidification of Natural Waters | p. 110 |
| Henry's Law | p. 110 |
| Dissolved Oxygen in Water | p. 111 |
| Dissolution of CO[subscript 2] in Water | p. 113 |
| Interactions between Water and Sediments/Soil | p. 114 |
| Physicochemical Processes in Aquatic Systems | p. 115 |
| Chemical Processes in Aquatic Systems | p. 115 |
| Acid-Base Reactions | p. 116 |
| Redox Reactions | p. 119 |
| Complex Formation | p. 122 |
| Speciation | p. 122 |
| Colloids: Properties, Types, Sources, and Formation | p. 124 |
| Photochemical Reactions | p. 126 |
| Natural Removal of Species from Aqueous Systems by Chemical and Physical Processes | p. 128 |
| Sorption onto Colloidal, Suspended, or Settled Sediments | p. 128 |
| Ion Exchange in Sediments and in Aqueous Colloidal and Suspended Matter | p. 129 |
| Precipitation Reactions and Co-precipitation | p. 131 |
| Solidification and Deposition Processes Due to Evaporation | p. 131 |
| Colloidal and Sediment Transport into Surface Water | p. 131 |
| Volatilization of Organic and Inorganic Compounds | p. 132 |
| Related Experiments in the Companion Book | p. 132 |
| Additional Related Experiments/Activities | p. 135 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 135 |
| Natural Biochemical Processes and Organisms in the Biosphere | p. 137 |
| Classification of Living Organisms | p. 137 |
| Nutritional Classification of Organisms | p. 140 |
| Basic Aspects of Ecology | p. 142 |
| The Habitats of Life: Air, Land, and Water | p. 143 |
| Atmosphere | p. 143 |
| Land | p. 143 |
| Water | p. 144 |
| Trophic Levels | p. 145 |
| Non-feeding Relations Among Species | p. 146 |
| Sustainability of Ecosystems | p. 147 |
| Biogeochemical Cycles | p. 148 |
| Water Cycle | p. 148 |
| Hydrogen Cycle | p. 148 |
| Carbon Cycle | p. 149 |
| Oxygen Cycle | p. 150 |
| Nitrogen Cycle | p. 152 |
| Fixation | p. 152 |
| Ammonification | p. 153 |
| Nitrification | p. 154 |
| Nitrate Reduction and Denitrification | p. 154 |
| Sulfur Cycle | p. 155 |
| Sulfur Mineralization | p. 155 |
| Oxidation of Sulfide and of Elemental Sulfur | p. 156 |
| Dissimilatory Sulfate or Sulfur Reduction | p. 157 |
| Assimilatory Sulfate Reduction or Sulfur Immobilization | p. 157 |
| Phosphorus Cycle | p. 157 |
| Iron Cycle | p. 159 |
| Interrelations Among Cycles | p. 160 |
| Related Experiments in the Companion Book | p. 161 |
| Additional Related Experiments/Activities | p. 162 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 162 |
| Effects, Treatment and Prevention of Pollution | |
| Effects of Pollutants on the Chemistry of the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Lithosphere | p. 167 |
| Importance of the Manufacture and Use of Chemical Substances | p. 167 |
| Sources of Chemical Substances as Contaminants and Pollutants | p. 167 |
| Transport, Mobility, and Partition of Pollutants | p. 169 |
| Air, Water, and Soil Pollution and Their Effects | p. 173 |
| Effects of Pollutants on the Atmosphere | p. 173 |
| Main Air Pollutants | p. 173 |
| Combustion Processes as the Main Air Pollution Source | p. 175 |
| The Greenhouse Effect | p. 176 |
| Smog Formation | p. 176 |
| Stratospheric Ozone Destruction or the Ozone Hole | p. 177 |
| Acid Rain | p. 178 |
| Indoor Pollution | p. 179 |
| Effects of Pollutants on the Hydrosphere | p. 180 |
| Oxygen-Demanding Materials | p. 180 |
| Nutrients | p. 182 |
| Pathogenic Organisms | p. 183 |
| Suspended Solids | p. 183 |
| Oil and Grease Spills | p. 184 |
| Metallic and Metalloid Compounds | p. 185 |
| Radionuclides | p. 185 |
| Detergents (Surfactants) and Nutrient Enrichment | p. 185 |
| Salts | p. 186 |
| Heat | p. 186 |
| Other Contributions | p. 187 |
| Groundwater Pollution | p. 187 |
| Surface Waters | p. 187 |
| Effects of Pollutants on the Lithosphere | p. 187 |
| Transformation of Pollutants in Soils | p. 187 |
| Transport, Mobility, and Partitioning of Pollutants in Soils | p. 188 |
| Agriculture and the Chemistry of Soils | p. 188 |
| Metals and Mining Processes | p. 189 |
| Other Wastes and Pollutants in Soil | p. 190 |
| Related Experiments in the Companion Book | p. 190 |
| Additional Related Experiments/Activities | p. 191 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 196 |
| Effects of Pollutants on the Biosphere: Biodegradability, Toxicity, and Risks | p. 198 |
| Types of Pollutants According to Their Capacity to Undergo Biotransformation | p. 198 |
| Biodegradable Substances and Biodegradation Processes | p. 198 |
| Biotic Transformation Reactions | p. 199 |
| Recalcitrance and Recalcitrant Compounds | p. 204 |
| Hazardous and Non-hazardous Substances or Pollutants | p. 207 |
| Classification of Hazardous Substances | p. 208 |
| Toxicity and Related Definitions | p. 208 |
| Factors That Affect the Toxicity of Chemical Substances | p. 208 |
| Human Health Risk Assessment | p. 220 |
| Hazard Identification | p. 221 |
| Dose-Response Assessment | p. 222 |
| Non-carcinogenic Risk Assessment | p. 223 |
| Cancer Risk Assessment | p. 224 |
| Exposure Assessment | p. 226 |
| Risk Characterization | p. 226 |
| Risk Management | p. 227 |
| Ecotoxicology | p. 228 |
| Methods of Ecotoxicology | p. 229 |
| Toxic Endpoints | p. 230 |
| Bioassays | p. 230 |
| Ecotoxicity Determination | p. 231 |
| Short-Time Toxicity Tests | p. 231 |
| Long-Term Toxicity Tests | p. 231 |
| Bioconcentration, Bioaccumulation, and Biomagnification | p. 232 |
| Biomarkers and Bioindicators | p. 233 |
| In Situ Monitoring | p. 233 |
| Ecological Risk Assessment | p. 234 |
| Characterization of the Baseline Ecology and Identification of Potential Receptor Populations | p. 234 |
| Ecological Toxicity Assessment | p. 234 |
| Evaluation of Potential Exposures | p. 234 |
| Risk Characterization | p. 234 |
| Risk Assessment | p. 234 |
| Related Experiments in the Companion Book | p. 235 |
| Additional Related Experiments/Activities | p. 236 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 236 |
| Physicochemical and Physical Treatment of Pollutants and Wastes | p. 237 |
| Physicochemical Processes | p. 237 |
| Redox Processes | p. 237 |
| Chemical Oxidation and Incineration | p. 238 |
| Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) | p. 249 |
| Chemical Reduction | p. 253 |
| Precipitation/Immobilization, Acid-Base/Hydrolysis, and Ion-Exchange Processes | p. 255 |
| Chemical Precipitation/Metal Immobilization | p. 255 |
| Acid-Base/Hydrolysis Processes | p. 256 |
| Ion Exchange | p. 256 |
| Complexation Processes | p. 258 |
| Gaseous Pollutants | p. 258 |
| Aqueous Pollutants | p. 258 |
| Soil Pollutants | p. 259 |
| Electrochemical Processes | p. 260 |
| Direct and Indirect Processes | p. 260 |
| Electrochemical Processes Based on Ion Exchange | p. 261 |
| Electrochemical Treatment of Gases | p. 261 |
| Electrokinetic Treatment of Soils | p. 262 |
| Electrochemical Production of Water Disinfectants | p. 263 |
| Hybrid Processes that Involve an Electrochemical Step for the Treatment of Aqueous Wastes | p. 263 |
| Other Chemical Processes | p. 264 |
| Selective Dissolution in CO[subscript 2] | p. 264 |
| Extraction with Other Liquefied Gases | p. 264 |
| Extraction with Liquid Solvents (Liquid-Liquid Extraction) | p. 264 |
| Catalytic Hydrodechlorination | p. 264 |
| Physical Processes | p. 264 |
| Adsorption Processes | p. 264 |
| Incorporation of Pollutants into Solid Materials | p. 265 |
| Clay Incorporation | p. 265 |
| Supersoaker Materials | p. 265 |
| Vitrification | p. 265 |
| Radiation-Based Processes | p. 265 |
| Microwave Energy | p. 265 |
| Electron Beams | p. 266 |
| Ultrasound | p. 266 |
| Photochemical Methods | p. 266 |
| Methods Based on Magnetic Fields | p. 266 |
| Magnetic Treatment | p. 266 |
| Magnetic Particles | p. 266 |
| Filtration Methods | p. 267 |
| Evaporation | p. 268 |
| Air/Steam Stripping | p. 268 |
| Combined Treatments | p. 268 |
| Related Experiments in the Companion Book | p. 269 |
| Additional Related Experiments/Activities | p. 272 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 272 |
| Biological Treatment of Pollutants and Wastes | p. 276 |
| Removal of Pollutants from Wastewater | p. 276 |
| Preliminary Treatment | p. 276 |
| Primary Treatment | p. 276 |
| Secondary Treatment | p. 277 |
| Aerobic Processes | p. 277 |
| Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater | p. 281 |
| Biological Nutrient Removal | p. 283 |
| Tertiary Treatment | p. 287 |
| Chemical and Physical Disinfection | p. 288 |
| Sludge Treatment Options | p. 288 |
| Anaerobic Digestion of Sludge | p. 289 |
| Composting | p. 289 |
| Pasteurization and Drying | p. 289 |
| Lime Stabilization | p. 289 |
| Wastewater Reuse | p. 290 |
| Biological Treatment of Soil and Groundwater | p. 290 |
| In Situ Bioremediation | p. 291 |
| Treatment of Excavated Soils | p. 292 |
| Composting | p. 292 |
| Slurry Reactors | p. 292 |
| Treatment Strategies for Aquifers | p. 292 |
| Physical Containment | p. 292 |
| In Situ Biorestoration | p. 292 |
| Above-Ground Bioreactors (Pump-and-Treat Technology) | p. 293 |
| Marine Oil Spills | p. 293 |
| Biological Treatment of Volatile Compounds | p. 294 |
| Related Experiments in the Companion Book | p. 295 |
| Additional Related Experiments/Activities | p. 295 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 295 |
| The Minimization and Prevention of Pollution; Green Chemistry | p. 296 |
| Industrial Ecology | p. 296 |
| Life-Cycle Assessment | p. 296 |
| Green Chemistry | p. 297 |
| Prevent Waste Production | p. 297 |
| Design Effective, Non-toxic Products | p. 298 |
| Design Good Syntheses | p. 298 |
| Use Alternative Feedstock/ Starting Materials | p. 299 |
| Minimize Waste Using Catalytic Reactions | p. 302 |
| Avoid Temporary Modifications | p. 304 |
| Maximize the Use of Starting Materials | p. 305 |
| Minimize the Use of Auxiliary Chemicals | p. 307 |
| Ionic Liquids (ILs) | p. 307 |
| Fluorous Compounds and Solvents | p. 312 |
| Supercritical Fluids | p. 313 |
| Solventless Reactions | p. 314 |
| Aqueous Systems | p. 315 |
| Biosolvents | p. 316 |
| Energy Requirements | p. 316 |
| Microwave Radiation | p. 317 |
| Green Photochemistry | p. 317 |
| Design Benign Products | p. 318 |
| Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers | p. 318 |
| Starch-Based Biodegradable Plastics | p. 319 |
| Optimize Monitoring and Control | p. 319 |
| Minimize the Potential for Accidents | p. 320 |
| Related Experiments in the Companion Book | p. 320 |
| Additional Related Experiments/Activities | p. 320 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 322 |
| Index | p. 325 |
| Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved. |
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