Particle Detection With Drift Chambers
by Blum, Walter; Riegler, Werner; Rolandi, LuigiEdition: 2nd
Format: Hardcover
Pub. Date: 2008-10-04
Publisher(s): Springer Verlag
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Summary
"This volume presents a thorough introduction to the theory and operation of drift chambers, one of the most important modern methods of elementary-particle detection. The topics, presented in a text-book style with many illustrations, include the basics of gas ionization, by particles and by lasers, drift of electrons and ions in gases and signal creation and discuss in depth the fundamental limits of accuracy and the issue of particle identification." "The book also surveys all types of drift chambers and the various drift-chamber gases in use. The calculation of the device parameters and physical processes are presented in some detail, as is all necessary background material. Thus the treatment, well beyond addressing the specialist in the field, is well suited to graduate physics students and nuclear engineers seeking a both thorough and pedagogical introduction to the field. The second edition presents a completely revised, updated and expanded version of this classic text. In particular, significantly more material on electronic signal creation, amplification and shaping has been added."--BOOK JACKET.
Table of Contents
| Gas Ionization by Charged Particles and by Laser Rays | p. 1 |
| Gas Ionization by Fast Charged Particles | p. 1 |
| Ionizing Collisions | p. 1 |
| Different Ionization Mechanisms | p. 3 |
| Average Energy Required to Produce One Ion Pair | p. 4 |
| The Range of Primary Electrons | p. 7 |
| The Differential Cross-section d[sigma]/dE | p. 7 |
| Calculation of Energy Loss | p. 9 |
| Force on a Charge Travelling Through a Polarizable Medium | p. 9 |
| The Photo-Absorption Ionization Model | p. 11 |
| Behaviour for Large E | p. 15 |
| Cluster-Size Distribution | p. 15 |
| Ionization Distribution on a Given Track Length | p. 16 |
| Velocity Dependence of the Energy Loss | p. 24 |
| The Bethe-Bloch Formula | p. 29 |
| Energy Deposited on a Track - Restricted Energy Loss | p. 32 |
| Localization of Charge Along the Track | p. 35 |
| A Measurement of N[subscript eff] | p. 37 |
| Gas Ionization by Laser Rays | p. 38 |
| The nth Order Cross-Section Equivalent | p. 38 |
| Rate Equations for Two-Photon Ionization | p. 39 |
| Dependence of Laser Ionization on Wavelength | p. 42 |
| Laser-Beam Optics | p. 44 |
| References | p. 46 |
| The Drift of Electrons and Ions in Gases | p. 49 |
| An Equation of Motion with Friction | p. 49 |
| Case of E Nearly Parallel to B | p. 52 |
| Case of E Orthogonal to B | p. 52 |
| The Microscopic Picture | p. 53 |
| Drift of Electrons | p. 53 |
| Drift of Ions | p. 56 |
| Inclusion of Magnetic Field | p. 64 |
| Diffusion | p. 67 |
| Electric Anisotropy | p. 70 |
| Magnetic Anisotropy | p. 72 |
| Electron Attachment | p. 75 |
| Results from the Complete Microscopic Theory | p. 79 |
| Distribution Function of Velocities | p. 79 |
| Drift | p. 81 |
| Inclusion of Magnetic Field | p. 82 |
| Diffusion | p. 83 |
| Applications | p. 83 |
| Determination of [sigma]([epsilon]) and [lambda]([epsilon]) from Drift Measurement | p. 83 |
| Example: Argon-Methane Mixture | p. 85 |
| Experimental Check of the Universal Drift Velocity for Large [omega tau] | p. 88 |
| A Measurement of Track Displacement as a Function of Magnetic Field | p. 89 |
| A Measurement of the Magnetic Anisotropy of Diffusion | p. 89 |
| Calculated and Measured Electron Drift Velocities in Crossed Electric and Magnetic Fields | p. 92 |
| References | p. 94 |
| Electrostatics of Tubes, Wire Grids and Field Cages | p. 97 |
| Perfect and Imperfect Drift Tubes | p. 98 |
| Perfect Drift Tube | p. 99 |
| Displaced Wire | p. 99 |
| Wire Grids | p. 105 |
| The Electric Field of an Ideal Grid of Wires Parallel to a Conducting Plane | p. 105 |
| Superposition of the Electric Fields of Several Grids and of a High-Voltage Plane | p. 108 |
| Matching the Potential of the Zero Grid and of the Electrodes of the Field Cage | p. 110 |
| An Ion Gate in the Drift Space | p. 112 |
| Calculation of Transparency | p. 113 |
| Setting of the Gating Grid Potential with Respect to the Zero-Grid Potential | p. 118 |
| Field Cages | p. 118 |
| The Difficulty of Free Dielectric Surfaces | p. 119 |
| Irregularities in the Field Cage | p. 121 |
| References | p. 124 |
| Amplification of Ionization | p. 125 |
| The Proportional Wire | p. 125 |
| Beyond the Proportional Mode | p. 128 |
| Lateral Extent of the Avalanche | p. 130 |
| Amplification Factor (Gain) of the Proportional Wire | p. 132 |
| The Diethorn Formula | p. 134 |
| Dependence of the Gain on the Gas Density | p. 136 |
| Measurement of the Gain Variation with Sense-Wire Voltage and Gas Pressure | p. 136 |
| Local Variations of the Gain | p. 138 |
| Variation of the Gain Near the Edge of the Chamber | p. 138 |
| Local Variation of the Gain Owing to Mechanical Imperfections | p. 139 |
| Gain Drop due to Space Charge | p. 142 |
| Statistical Fluctuation of the Gain | p. 145 |
| Distributions of Avalanches in Weak Fields | p. 145 |
| Distributions of Avalanches in Electronegative Gases | p. 147 |
| Distributions of Avalanches in Strong Homogeneous Fields | p. 149 |
| Distributions of Avalanches in Strong Non-uniform Fields | p. 151 |
| The Effect of Avalanche Fluctuations on the Wire Pulse Heights | p. 151 |
| A Measurement of Avalanche Fluctuations Using Laser Tracks | p. 152 |
| References | p. 154 |
| Creation of the Signal | p. 157 |
| The Principle of Signal Induction by Moving Charges | p. 157 |
| Capacitance Matrix, Reciprocity Theorem | p. 158 |
| Signals Induced on Grounded Electrodes, Ramo's Theorem | p. 160 |
| Total Induced Charge and Sum of Induced Signals | p. 161 |
| Induced Signals in a Drift Tube | p. 163 |
| Signals Induced on Electrodes Connected with Impedance Elements | p. 165 |
| Application to a Drift Tube and its Circuitry | p. 169 |
| Alternative Methods for the Calculation of the Signal | p. 171 |
| Signals Induced in Multiwire Chambers | p. 172 |
| Signals Induced on Wires | p. 172 |
| Signals Induced on Cathode Strips and Pads | p. 176 |
| References | p. 179 |
| Electronics for Drift Chambers | p. 181 |
| Linear Signal Processing | p. 183 |
| Laplace and Fourier Transforms | p. 183 |
| Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros, Delta Response | p. 185 |
| CR, RC, Pole-zero and Zero-pole Filters | p. 187 |
| Cascading of Circuit Elements | p. 191 |
| Amplifier Types, Bandwidth, Sensitivity, and Ballistic Deficit | p. 192 |
| Signal Shaping | p. 194 |
| Unipolar and Bipolar Signal Shaping | p. 195 |
| Signal Tail Cancellation | p. 200 |
| Signal Pileup, Baseline Shift, and Baseline Fluctuations | p. 205 |
| Input Circuit | p. 211 |
| Noise and Optimum Filters | p. 213 |
| Noise Characterization | p. 214 |
| Noise Sources | p. 217 |
| Noise in Wire Chambers | p. 225 |
| A Universal Limit on the Signal-to-Noise Ratio | p. 231 |
| Electronics for Charge Measurement | p. 234 |
| Electronics for Time Measurement | p. 235 |
| Influence of Electronics Noise on Time Resolution | p. 237 |
| Influence of Pulse-Height Fluctuations on Time Resolution | p. 239 |
| Influence of Electron Arrival Time Fluctuations on Time Resolution | p. 241 |
| Three Examples of Modern Drift Chamber Electronics | p. 246 |
| The ASDBLR Front-end Electronics | p. 246 |
| The ATLAS CSC Front-end Electronics | p. 247 |
| The PASA and ALTRO Electronics for the ALICE TPC | p. 247 |
| References | p. 248 |
| Coordinate Measurement and Fundamental Limits of Accuracy | p. 251 |
| Methods of Coordinate Measurement | p. 251 |
| Basic Formulae for a Single Wire | p. 253 |
| Frequency Distribution of the Coordinates of a Single Electron at the Entrance to the Wire Region | p. 254 |
| Frequency Distribution of the Arrival Time of a Single Electron at the Entrance to the Wire Region | p. 256 |
| Influence of the Cluster Fluctuations on the Resolution - the Effective Number of Electrons | p. 257 |
| Accuracy in the Measurement of the Coordinate in or near the Wire Direction | p. 261 |
| Inclusion of a Magnetic Field Perpendicular to the Wire Direction: the Wire E x B Effect | p. 261 |
| Case Study of the Explicit Dependence of the Resolution on L and [theta] | p. 263 |
| The General Situation - Contributions of Several Wires, and the Angular Pad Effect | p. 264 |
| Consequences of (7.33) for the Construction of TPCs | p. 268 |
| A Measurement of the Angular Variation of the Accuracy | p. 268 |
| Accuracy in the Measurement of the Coordinate in the Drift Direction | p. 270 |
| Inclusion of a Magnetic Field Parallel to the Wire Direction: the Drift E x B Effect | p. 271 |
| Average Arrival Time of Many Electrons | p. 272 |
| Arrival Time of the Mth Electron | p. 272 |
| Variance of the Arrival Time of the Mth Electron: Contribution of the Drift-Path Variations | p. 273 |
| Variance of the Arrival Time of the Mth Electron: Contribution of the Diffusion | p. 275 |
| Accuracy Limitation Owing to Wire Vibrations | p. 277 |
| Linear Harmonic Oscillator Driven by Random Pulses | p. 278 |
| Wire Excited by Avalanche Ions | p. 279 |
| Accuracy Limitation Owing to Space Charge Fluctuations | p. 281 |
| References | p. 288 |
| Geometrical Track Parameters and Their Errors | p. 291 |
| Linear Fit | p. 292 |
| Case of Equal Spacing Between x[subscript 0] and x[subscript N] | p. 293 |
| Quadratic Fit | p. 294 |
| Error Calculation | p. 295 |
| Origin at the Centre of the Track - Uniform Spacing of Wires | p. 296 |
| Sagitta | p. 298 |
| Covariance Matrix at an Arbitrary Point Along the Track | p. 299 |
| Comparison Between the Linear and Quadratic Fits in Special Cases | p. 300 |
| Optimal Spacing of Wires | p. 302 |
| A Chamber and One Additional Measuring Point Outside | p. 302 |
| Comparison of the Accuracy in the Curvature Measurement | p. 304 |
| Extrapolation to a Vertex | p. 304 |
| Limitations Due to Multiple Scattering | p. 306 |
| Basic Formulae | p. 306 |
| Vertex Determination | p. 309 |
| Resolution of Curvature for Tracks Through a Scattering Medium | p. 310 |
| Spectrometer Resolution | p. 311 |
| Limit of Measurement Errors | p. 311 |
| Limit of Multiple Scattering | p. 312 |
| References | p. 313 |
| Ion Gates | p. 315 |
| Reasons for the Use of Ion Gates | p. 315 |
| Electric Charge in the Drift Region | p. 315 |
| Ageing | p. 318 |
| Survey of Field Configurations and Trigger Modes | p. 318 |
| Three Field Configurations | p. 318 |
| Three Trigger Modes | p. 320 |
| Transparency under Various Operating Conditions | p. 320 |
| Transparency of the Static Bipolar Gate | p. 321 |
| Average Transparency of the Regularly Pulsed Bipolar Gate | p. 323 |
| Transparency of the Static Bipolar Gate in a Transverse Magnetic Field | p. 326 |
| References | p. 329 |
| Particle Identification by Measurement of Ionization | p. 331 |
| Principles | p. 331 |
| Shape of the Ionization Curve | p. 334 |
| Statistical Treatment of the n Ionization Samples of One Track | p. 337 |
| Accuracy of the Ionization Measurement | p. 339 |
| Variation with n and x | p. 339 |
| Variation with the Particle Velocity | p. 340 |
| Variation with the Gas | p. 341 |
| Particle Separation | p. 344 |
| Cluster Counting | p. 345 |
| Ionization Measurement in Practice | p. 347 |
| Track-Independent Corrections | p. 347 |
| Track-Dependent Corrections | p. 348 |
| Performance Achieved in Existing Detectors | p. 349 |
| Wire Chambers Specialized to Measure Track Ionization | p. 349 |
| Ionization Measurement in Universal Detectors | p. 354 |
| References | p. 358 |
| Existing Drift Chambers - An Overview | p. 361 |
| Definition of Three Geometrical Types of Drift Chambers | p. 361 |
| Historical Drift Chambers | p. 362 |
| Drift Chambers for Fixed-Target and Collider Experiments | p. 365 |
| General Considerations Concerning the Directions of Wires and Magnetic Fields | p. 366 |
| The Dilemma of the Lorentz Angle | p. 367 |
| Left-Right Ambiguity | p. 368 |
| Planar Drift Chambers of Type 1 | p. 368 |
| Coordinate Measurement in the Wire Direction | p. 368 |
| Five Representative Chambers | p. 369 |
| Type 1 Chambers without Field-Shaping Electrodes | p. 375 |
| Large Cylindrical Drift Chambers of Type 2 | p. 377 |
| Coordinate Measurement along the Axis - Stereo Chambers | p. 377 |
| Five Representative Chambers with (Approximately) Axial Wires | p. 377 |
| Drift Cells | p. 380 |
| The UA1 Central Drift Chamber | p. 384 |
| The ATLAS Muon Drift Chambers (MDT) | p. 385 |
| A Large TPC System for High Track Densities | p. 388 |
| Small Cylindrical Drift Chambers of Type 2 for Colliders (Vertex Chambers) | p. 390 |
| Six Representative Chambers | p. 393 |
| Drift Chambers of Type 3 | p. 397 |
| Double-Track Resolution in TPCs | p. 398 |
| Five Representative TPCs | p. 399 |
| A Type 3 Chamber with a Radial Drift Field | p. 403 |
| A TPC for Heavy-Ion Experiments | p. 404 |
| A Type 3 Chamber as External Particle Identifier | p. 404 |
| A TPC for Muon-Decay Measurements | p. 406 |
| Chambers with Extreme Accuracy | p. 407 |
| References | p. 409 |
| Drift-Chamber Gases | p. 413 |
| General Considerations Concerning the Choice of Drift-Chamber Gases | p. 413 |
| Inflammable Gas Mixtures | p. 416 |
| Gas Purity, and Some Practical Measurements of Electron Attachment | p. 420 |
| Three-Body Attachment to O[subscript 2], Mediated by CH[subscript 4], i-C[subscript 4]H[subscript 10] and H[subscript 2]O | p. 420 |
| 'Poisoning' of the Gas by Construction Materials, Causing Electron Attachment | p. 422 |
| The Effect of Minor H[subscript 2]O Contamination on the Drift Velocity | p. 422 |
| Chemical Compounds Used for Laser Ionization | p. 424 |
| Choice of the Gas Pressure | p. 426 |
| Point-Measuring Accuracy | p. 427 |
| Lorentz Angle | p. 428 |
| Drift-Field Distortions from Space Charge | p. 429 |
| Deterioration of Chamber Performance with Usage ('Ageing') | p. 429 |
| General Observations in Particle Experiments | p. 430 |
| Dark Currents | p. 430 |
| Ageing Tests in the Lower-Flux Regime | p. 433 |
| Ageing Tests in the High-Flux Regime | p. 435 |
| References | p. 439 |
| Index | p. 443 |
| Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved. |
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