Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac),9780534615604

Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

by ;
Edition: 4th
ISBN13: 9780534615604
ISBN10: 0534615600
Format: Hardcover
Pub. Date: 2004-02-19
Publisher(s): Wadsworth Publishing
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Summary

Part One: AN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY. 1. Crime, Criminal Justice, and Scientific Inquiry. 2. Theory and Criminal Justice Research. 3. Ethics and Criminal Justice Research. Part Two: STRUCTURING CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY. 4. General Issues in Research Design. 5. Concepts, Operationalization, and Measurement. 6. Measuring Crime. 7. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs. Part Three: MODES OF OBSERVATION. 8. Overview of Data Collections and Sampling. 9. Survey Research and Other Ways of Asking Questions. 10. Field Research. 11. Agency Records, Content Analysis, and Secondary Data. Part Four: APPLICATION AND ANALYSIS. 12. Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis. 13. Interpreting Data. Glossary. Bibliography. Name Index. Subject Index.

Table of Contents

Preface x
PART ONE: An Introduction to Criminal Justice Inquiry
1(76)
Crime, Criminal Justice, and Scientific Inquiry
2(27)
Introduction
3(1)
Home Detention
4(1)
What Is This Book About?
4(3)
Two Realities
4(2)
The Role of Science
6(1)
Personal Human Inquiry
7(2)
Tradition
7(1)
Arrest and Domestic Violence
8(1)
Authority
8(1)
Errors in Personal Human Inquiry
9(2)
Inaccurate Observation
9(1)
Overgeneralization
10(1)
Selective Observation
10(1)
Illogical Reasoning
10(1)
Ideology and Politics
11(1)
To Err Is Human
11(1)
Foundations of Social Science
11(8)
Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief
13(1)
Regularities
13(1)
What About Exceptions?
14(1)
Aggregates, Not Individuals
14(1)
A Variable Language
14(1)
Variables and Attributes
15(3)
Variables and Relationships
18(1)
Purposes of Research
19(2)
Exploration
19(1)
Description
19(1)
Explanation
20(1)
Application
20(1)
Differing Avenues for Inquiry
21(5)
Ideographic and Nomothetic Explanations
21(1)
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
22(1)
Quantitative and Qualitative Data
23(1)
Putting It All Together: Why Did Crime Go Up (or Down) in New York City?
24(2)
Ethics and Criminal Justice Research
26(1)
Knowing Through Experience: Summing Up and Looking Ahead
26(1)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
27(2)
Theory and Criminal Justice Research
29(22)
Introduction
30(1)
The Creation of Social Science Theory
30(12)
The Traditional Model of Science
30(4)
Two Logical Systems
34(2)
Grounded Theory and Community Prosecution
36(4)
Terms Used in Theory Construction
40(2)
Theory in Criminal Justice
42(6)
Law Breaking
42(2)
Policy Responses
44(1)
Theory, Research, and Public Policy
45(1)
Putting It All Together: New York's Secret? Purposive Action
46(1)
Ecological Theories of Crime and Crime Prevention Policy
46(2)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
48(3)
Ethics and Criminal Justice Research
51(26)
Introduction
52(1)
Ethical Issues in Criminal Justice Research
52(11)
No Harm to Participants
53(1)
Ethics and Extreme Field Research
54(2)
Voluntary Participation
56(1)
Anonymity and Confidentiality
57(1)
Deceiving Subjects
58(1)
Analysis and Reporting
59(1)
Legal Liability
60(1)
Special Problems
60(3)
Promoting Compliance with Ethical Principles
63(6)
Codes of Professional Ethics
63(1)
Institutional Review Boards
64(2)
Ethics and Juvenile Gang Members
66(1)
Institutional Review Board Requirements and Researcher Rights
67(2)
Two Ethical Controversies
69(4)
Trouble in the Tearoom
69(1)
Putting it all Together: Confidentiality in Police Research
70(1)
The Stanford Prison Experiment
70(3)
Discussion Examples
73(1)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
74(3)
PART TWO: Structuring Criminal Justice Inquiry
77(130)
General Issues in Research Design
78(36)
Introduction
79(1)
Causation in the Social Sciences
80(3)
Criteria for Causality
80(1)
Necessary and Sufficient Causes
81(1)
Molar and Micromediational Causal Statements
82(1)
Validity and Causal Inference
83(7)
Statistical Conclusion Validity
83(1)
Internal Validity
84(1)
Construct Validity
84(2)
External Validity
86(1)
Validity and Causal Inference Summarized
86(1)
Does Drug Use Cause Crime?
87(1)
Putting it all Together: Causation and Declining Crime in New York City
88(1)
Introducing Scientific Realism
89(1)
Units of Analysis
90(5)
Individuals
91(1)
Groups
91(1)
Organizations
92(1)
Social Artifacts
92(1)
Units of Analysis in Review
93(1)
The Ecological Fallacy
94(1)
Reductionism
95(1)
The Time Dimension
95(7)
Units of Analysis in the National Youth Gang Survey
96(1)
Cross-Sectional Studies
96(1)
Longitudinal Studies
97(1)
Approximating Longitudinal Studies
98(1)
Retrospective Studies
99(1)
The Time Dimension Summarized
100(2)
Putting it all Together: Units and Time in New York City
102(1)
How to Design a Research Project
102(7)
The Research Process
103(2)
Getting Started
105(1)
Conceptualization
106(1)
Choice of Research Method
106(1)
Operationalization
107(1)
Population and Sampling
107(1)
Observations
107(1)
Data Processing
107(1)
Analysis
107(1)
Application
108(1)
Research Design in Review
108(1)
The Research Proposal
109(2)
Elements of a Research Proposal
110(1)
Answers to the Units-of-Analysis Exercise
111(1)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercises·InfoTrac College·Edition·Additional Readings
111(3)
Concepts, Operationalization, and Measurement
114(28)
Introduction
115(1)
Conceptions and Concepts
115(7)
Conceptualization
117(1)
Indicators and Dimensions
117(1)
Confusion over Definitions and Reality
118(1)
Creating Conceptual Order
118(2)
What Is Recidivism?
120(2)
Operationalization Choices
122(6)
Measurement as ``Scoring''
122(2)
Jail Stay
124(1)
Exhaustive and Exclusive Measurement
125(1)
Levels of Measurement
125(2)
Implications of Levels of Measurement
127(1)
Criteria for Measurement Quality
128(6)
Reliability
129(2)
Validity
131(3)
Composite Measures
134(3)
Typologies
134(1)
An Index of Disorder
135(2)
Measurement Summary
137(1)
Putting It All Together: What's A Police Activity?
138(1)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
138(4)
Measuring Crime
142(32)
Introduction
143(1)
General Issues in Measuring Crime
143(3)
What Offenses?
144(1)
What Units of Analysis?
144(1)
What Purpose?
145(1)
Units of Analysis and Measuring Crime
146(1)
Crimes Known to Police
146(7)
Uniform Crime Reports
147(2)
The UCR and Criteria for Measurement Quality
149(1)
Incident-Based Police Records
149(1)
The National Incident-Based Reporting System
150(2)
NIBRS and Criteria for Measurement Quality
152(1)
Measuring Crime Through Victim Surveys
153(6)
The National Crime Victimization Study
153(2)
NCVS Redesign
155(2)
Community Victimization Surveys
157(1)
Comparing Victim Surveys and Crimes Known to Police
158(1)
Surveys of Offending
159(4)
National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse
160(1)
Monitoring the Future
161(1)
Validity and Reliability of Self-Report Measures
162(1)
Self-Report Surveys Summarized
162(1)
Drug Surveillance Systems
163(3)
Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring
163(1)
The Drug Abuse Warning Network
164(1)
Pulse Check
165(1)
Measuring Crime for Specific Purposes
166(4)
Local Crime Surveys
167(1)
Putting it all Together: Measuring Crime in New York City
168(1)
Incident-Based Crime Records
168(1)
Observing Crime
169(1)
Measuring Crime Summary
170(1)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercises·InfoTrac College·Edition·Additional Readings
171(3)
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs
174(33)
Introduction
175(1)
The Classical Experiment
176(4)
Independent and Dependent Variables
176(1)
Pretesting and Posttesting
177(1)
Experimental and Control Groups
177(2)
Double-Blind Experiments
179(1)
Selecting Subjects
180(1)
Randomization
180(1)
Experiments and Causal Inference
180(9)
Experiments and Threats to Validity
181(1)
Threats to Internal Validity
181(4)
Ruling Out Threats to Internal Validity
185(1)
Generalizability and Threats to Validity
186(1)
Threats to Construct Validity
186(2)
Threats to External Validity
188(1)
Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity
188(1)
Variations in the Classical Experimental Design
189(1)
Quasi-Experimental Designs
190(13)
Nonequivalent-Group Designs
191(3)
Cohort Designs
194(1)
Time-Series Designs
195(3)
Variations in Time-Series Designs
198(1)
Variable-Oriented Research and Scientific Realism
199(1)
Putting It All Together: A Variety of Designs in New York City
200(3)
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs Summarized
203(1)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
203(4)
PART THREE: Modes of Observation
207(146)
Overview of Data Collection and Sampling
208(37)
Introduction
209(1)
Three Sources of Data
210(3)
Asking Directions
210(1)
Making Direct Observations
210(1)
Examining Written Records
211(1)
Using Multiple Data Sources
211(1)
Putting It All Together: Using Three Types of Data in New York City
212(1)
General Issues in Data Collection
213(4)
Measurement Validity and Reliability
213(1)
Multiple Measures in Home Detention
214(1)
Obtrusive and Unobtrusive Measures
215(1)
Be Careful, but Be Creative
216(1)
The Logic of Probability Sampling
217(3)
Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias
217(2)
Representativeness and Probability of Selection
219(1)
Probability Theory and Sampling Distribution
220(8)
The Sampling Distribution in 10 Cases
221(2)
From Sampling Distribution to Parameter Estimate
223(3)
Estimating Sampling Error
226(1)
Confidence Levels and Confidence Intervals
227(1)
Random Sampling and Probability Theory Summed Up
228(1)
Populations and Sampling Frames
228(1)
Types of Sampling Designs
229(6)
Simple Random Sampling
229(1)
Systematic Sampling
230(1)
Stratified Sampling
230(1)
Disproportionate Stratified Sampling
231(1)
Multistage Cluster Sampling
232(1)
Multistage Cluster Sampling with Stratification
233(2)
Illustration: Two National Crime Surveys
235(2)
The National Crime Victimization Survey
236(1)
The British Crime Survey
236(1)
Probability Sampling in Review
237(1)
Nonprobability Sampling
237(5)
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
237(1)
Putting It All Together: Sampling New York City Police Precincts
238(1)
Quota Sampling
239(1)
Reliance on Available Subjects
240(1)
Snowball Sampling
241(1)
Nonprobability Sampling in Review
242(1)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
242(3)
Survey Research and Other Ways of Asking Questions
245(36)
Introduction
246(1)
Topics Appropriate to Survey Research
247(3)
Counting Crime
247(1)
Self-Reports
247(1)
Perceptions and Attitudes
248(1)
Policy Proposals
248(1)
Targeted Victim Surveys
249(1)
Other Evaluation Uses
249(1)
General-Purpose Crime Surveys
250(1)
Guidelines for Asking Questions
250(4)
Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions
250(1)
Questions and Statements
251(1)
Make Items Clear
251(1)
Short Items Are Best
252(1)
Avoid Negative Items
252(1)
Biased Items and Terms
252(1)
Designing Self-Report Items
253(1)
Questionnaire Construction
254(4)
General Questionnaire Format
254(1)
Contingency Questions
255(1)
Matrix Questions
256(2)
Ordering Questions in a Questionnaire
258(1)
Self-Administered Questionnaires
258(5)
Don't Start From Scratch!
259(1)
Mail Distribution and Return
260(1)
Warning Mailings and Cover Letters
260(1)
Follow-Up Mailings
261(1)
Acceptable Response Rates
261(1)
Computer-Based Self-Administration
262(1)
In-Person Interview Surveys
263(4)
The Role of the Interviewer
263(1)
General Rules for Interviewing
264(1)
Coordination and Control
265(1)
Computer-Assisted In-Person Interviews
265(2)
Telephone Surveys
267(3)
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
269(1)
Comparison of the Three Methods
270(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research
271(2)
Other Ways of Asking Questions
273(3)
Specialized Interviewing
273(1)
Focus Groups
274(2)
Putting It All Together: Asking Questions in New York City
276(1)
Should You do it Yourself?
276(2)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
278(3)
Field Research
281(37)
Introduction
282(1)
Topics Appropriate to Field Research
283(2)
The Various Roles of the Observer
285(2)
Asking Questions
287(2)
Gaining Access to Subjects
289(7)
Gaining Access to Formal Organizations
289(1)
Gaining Access to Subcultures
289(4)
Selecting Cases for Observation
293(1)
Purposive Sampling in Field Research
294(2)
Recording Observations
296(4)
Cameras and Tape Recorders
297(1)
Field Notes
298(1)
Structured Observations
299(1)
Linking Field Observations and Other Data
300(2)
Illustrations of Field Research
302(10)
Shoplifting
303(1)
Conducting a Safety Audit
304(2)
How Many People Wear Seat Belts?
306(1)
``Driving While Black''
307(1)
Bars and Violence
308(2)
Putting It All Together: Field Research in New York City
310(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Research
312(3)
Validity
313(1)
Reliability
314(1)
Generalizability
314(1)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
315(3)
Agency Records, Content Analysis, and Secondary Data
318(35)
Introduction
319(1)
Topics Appropriate for Agency Records and Content Analysis
320(1)
Types of Agency Records
321(10)
Published Statistics
321(3)
Nonpublic Agency Records
324(4)
New Data Collected by Agency Staff
328(2)
Improving Police Records of Domestic Violence
330(1)
Units of Analysis and Sampling
331(2)
Units of Analysis
332(1)
Sampling
333(1)
Reliability and Validity
333(5)
Sources of Reliability and Validity Problems
334(2)
How Many Parole Violators Were There Last Month?
336(2)
Content Analysis
338(7)
Units of Analysis and Sampling in Content Analysis
339(2)
Coding in Content Analysis
341(2)
Illustrations of Content Analysis
343(2)
Secondary Analysis
345(5)
Sources of Secondary Data
346(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data
347(1)
Putting It All Together: NYPD Agency Records
348(2)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
350(3)
PART FOUR: Application and Analysis
353(81)
Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis
354(38)
Introduction
355(1)
Topics Appropriate for Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis
356(4)
The Policy Process
356(2)
Linking the Process to Evaluation
358(2)
Getting Started
360(7)
Evaluability Assessment
361(1)
Problem Formulation
362(2)
Measurement
364(3)
Designs for Program Evaluation
367(9)
Randomized Evaluation Designs
367(3)
Home Detention: Two Randomized Studies
370(3)
Quasi-Experimental Designs
373(3)
Other Types of Evaluation Studies
376(1)
Policy Analysis and Scientific Realism
376(9)
Modeling Prison Populations
377(3)
Other Applications of Policy Analysis
380(2)
Scientific Realism and Applied Research
382(2)
Putting It All Together: Applied Research in the NYPD
384(1)
The Political Context of Applied Research
385(4)
Evaluation and Stakeholders
386(1)
Politics and Objectivity
387(1)
When Politics Accommodate Facts
388(1)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
389(3)
Interpreting Data
392(42)
Introduction
393(1)
Univariate Description
393(8)
Distributions
394(1)
Measures of Central Tendency
394(1)
Measures of Dispersion
395(3)
Comparing Measures of Dispersion and Central Tendency
398(2)
Computing Rates
400(1)
Detail Versus Manageability
401(1)
Describing Two or More Variables
401(17)
Bivariate Analysis
402(3)
Multivariate Analysis
405(1)
Murder on the Job
406(4)
Measures of Association
410(6)
Putting It All Together: Analyzing NYPD Crime Data
416(2)
Inferential Statistics
418(13)
Univariate Inferences
418(1)
Tests of Statistical Significance
419(1)
The Logic of Statistical Significance
419(5)
Visualizing Statistical Significance
424(2)
Chi Square
426(2)
Cautions in Interpreting Statistical Significance
428(1)
Visualizing Discernible Differences
429(2)
Main Points·Key Terms·Review Questions and Exercises·Internet Exercise·InfoTrac College Edition·Additional Readings
431(3)
Glossary 434(8)
Bibliography 442(14)
Name Index 456(3)
Subject Index 459

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