The Structure of Argument

PART ONE Understanding Argument

*1. What Is Argument?

Why Study Argument?

Argument in the Twenty-First Century

DREW ALLEN AND GREGORY C. WOLNIAK, When College Tuition Goes Up, Campus Diversity Goes Down

The Purposes of Argument

The Elements of Argument

The Ethics of Argument

So, Why Write Arguments?

2. Critical Reading of Written Arguments

Prereading

Strategies for Prereading

GRETA THUNBERG, How Dare You?

Reading with an Open Mind

KATHLEEN KENNEDY TOWNSEND, JOSEPH P. KENNEDY II, AND MAEVE KENNEDY MCKEAN, RFK Jr. Is Our Brother and Uncle. He’s Tragically Wrong about Vaccines.

Reading for Content and Structure

Strategies for Annotating a Text

CHRISTOPHER ELLIOTT, A Tale of Two Airlines

Summarizing

Research Skill: Using Summaries in Research

OCEAN VUONG, Reimagining Masculinity

Evaluating

Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

*AIMEE PICCHI, More Kids Are Working Dangerous Jobs amid Weaker Labor Laws, Child Migration

Argument Essentials: Examining Written Arguments

Assignments for Critical Reading of Written Arguments

3. Critical Reading of Multimodal Arguments

Visual Rhetoric

Photographs

ERIK MCGREGOR, Candlelight Vigil for Mass Shooting Victims

MICHAEL CAMPANELLA, Friday School Strikes, August 2018

MARCO MERLINE, Fridays for the Future, Six Months Later

*DMITRY KOSTYUKOV, A Homeless Man and His Dog

JOSEPH PREZIOSO, A Standoff over Immigration

*COURTENEY COKO MOORE, Little Boy Holds Hand of Crying Classmate

Print Advertisements

Argument Essentials: Visual Rhetoric

*WORLD WILDLIFE FUND, You Can Help. Stop Global Warming.

*AD COUNCIL, It Only Takes a Moment to Make a Moment

Political Cartoons

*MATT WUERKER, Critical Race Theory

*PETER KUPER, Justice Weighs Truth

Graphics

THEWORLD.ORG, Tobacco’s Shifting Burden

GUTTMACHER INSTITUTE, Monthly Abortion Provision Study

Audio and Audiovisual Rhetoric

Television Commercials

*JEEP, Dents

Podcasts

Speeches and Debates

Argument Essentials: Audiovisual Rhetoric

ELIZABETH WARREN, Remarks at the Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate

Strategies for Critical Listening

Online Environments

Social Media

WILLIAM WHARTON, “Peaceful” Act of Compassion

Argument Essentials: Online Environments

Research Skill: Evaluating Online Sources

Interactive Websites

*AD COUNCIL, End Family Fire

Assignments for Critical Reading of Multimodal Arguments

4. Writing Argument Analysis

Argument Essentials: Argument Analysis

Writing the Thesis (Main Claim)

Argument Essentials: Writing the Claim for Analysis

Planning the Structure

Argument Essentials: Planning the Structure

Providing Support

Summarizing

Paraphrasing

Argument Essentials: Providing Support

Quoting

Research Skill: Incorporating Quotations into Your Text

Integrating Your Sources

Strategies for Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation

Reading and Practicing Argument Analysis

JAMES W. INGRAM III, Electoral College Is Best Way to Choose U.S. President

HEALTHCARE MANAGEMENT, The Science Facts about Autism and Vaccines (infographic)

BEN ADLER, Are Plastic-Bag Bans Good for the Climate?

LESLEY WEXLER AND JENNIFER K. ROBBENNOLT, #MeToo and Restorative Justice: Realizing Restoration for Victims and Offenders

DESTINÉE MILLER, Restorative Justice and the #MeToo Movement (student essay)

SABRA STAPLETON, How to Pick a President: Electoral College vs. National Popular Vote (student essay)

Assignments for Writing Argument Analysis

PART TWO Writing Argument

*5. Approaches to Argument

Aristotelian Rhetoric

Ethos

Logos

Pathos

Ancient Rhetoric Today

Argument Essentials: Aristotelian Rhetoric

CHESLEY B. “SULLY” SULLENBERGER III, We Saved 155 Lives on the Hudson. Now Let’s Vote for Leaders Who’ll Protect Us All.

LIZA LONG, I Am Adam Lanza’s Mother

Rogerian Argument

Argument Essentials: Rogerian Argument

MALLORY SIMON, Gun Debate: Where Is the Middle Ground?

SARAH SELTZER, Teaching Trigger Warnings: What Pundits Don’t Understand about the Year’s Most Controversial Higher-Ed Debate

Stasis Theory

The Stasis Questions

Stasis Theory Claims

Research Skill: Narrowing Your Research

The Toulmin Model

The Claim

The Support

The Assumption

Toulmin and the Syllogism

Argument Essentials: The Toulmin Model

ANGIRA PATEL, To Be a Good Doctor, Study the Humanities

STEVEN REINBERG, Embryo Selection May Help Prevent Some Inherited Disorders

Assignments for Approaches to Argument

6. Claims

Claims of Fact

Argument Essentials: Claims of Fact

Research Skill: Using Databases

AMY FROIDE, Spinster, Old Maid, or Self-Partnered: Why Words for Single Women Have Changed through Time

DOMTAR PAPER, Paper Because (advertisement)

Claims of Value

Aesthetics

Morality

Argument Essentials: Claims of Value

*DEVORAH HEITNER, The Very Common, Very Harmful Thing Well-Meaning Parents Do

*ANN HORNADAY, Christopher Nolan’s “Oppenheimer” Is a Supersize Masterpiece

Claims of Policy

Argument Essentials: Claims of Policy

JILLIAN PETERSON AND JAMES DENSLEY, What We’ve Learned about Mass Shooters Since 1966

*SARAH HUCKABEE SANDERS, Executive Order To Eliminate Woke, Anti-Women Words From State Government And Respect Women

Strategies for Reading and Writing Claims

Assignments for Claims

7. Support

Strategies for Reading and Writing Support

Evidence

Factual Evidence

Images

Research Skill: Evaluating Factual Evidence

Expert Opinion

Research Skill: Evaluating Expert Opinion

Argument Essentials: Evidence

KRISTEN WEINACKER, Safer? Tastier? More Nutritious? The Dubious Merits of Organic Foods (student essay)

*JOAN E. SOLSMAN, Movie Theaters Didn’t Die, but They’ll Never Be the Same Again

Appeals to Needs and Values

Appeals to Needs

Argument Essentials: Appeals to Needs and Values

Appeals to Values

Strategies for Evaluating Appeals to Needs and Values

RONALD M. GREEN, Building Baby from the Genes Up

SARAH GRIFFITHS, Why Having a Crush Is Good for You

Assignments for Support

8. Assumptions

General Principles

Widely Held Assumptions

Argument Essentials: Assumptions

Recognizing and Analyzing Unstated Assumptions

“Obvious” Assumptions

Intention to Deceive

Strategies for Recognizing Assumptions

THOMAS R. WELLS, Let the Anti-Vaxxers Have Their Way

Research Skill: Focusing a Research Topic

MICHAEL LEVIN, The Case for Torture

ROBERT A. SIRICO, An Unjust Sacrifice

Assignments for Assumptions

9. Structuring the Argument

Organizing the Argument

Defending the Thesis

Refuting an Opposing View

Strategies for Refuting an Opposing View

SHARON ASTYK AND AARON NEWTON, The Rich Get Richer, the Poor Go Hungry

Finding the Middle Ground

Strategies for Finding the Middle Ground

JACK BEYRER, Innovative Gun Control Idea Gains Support

Presenting the Stock Issues

JOHN R. KOZA, States Can Reform Electoral College?—?Here’s How to Empower Popular Vote

Argument Essentials: Organizing the Argument

Introductions and Conclusions

Writing the Introduction

Writing the Conclusion

Assignments for Structuring Arguments

PART THREE Strengthening Argument

10. Language

The Power of Words

Emotive Language

STIHL, Consumer Confidence (advertisement)

CHARLES PIERCE, CONSERVATIVE POLITICAL RHETORIC NOW HAS AN OFFICIAL BODY COUNT

Connotation

Slanting

Figurative Language

W. E. B. DU BOIS, Of Our Spiritual Strivings

Concrete and Abstract Language

Shortcuts

Clichés

Slogans

Argument Essentials: Evaluating Language

Strategies for Evaluating Word Choice and Choosing Your Words Carefully

*RACHEL SYME, Selfie: The Revolutionary Potential of Your Own Face

BARACK OBAMA, Remarks at Memorial Service for Fallen Dallas Police Officers

Assignments for Language

11. Definition

The Purposes of Definition

Argument Essentials: Purposes of Definition

SUNNIVIE BRYDUM, The True Meaning of the Word “Cisgender”

*LUCAS WRIGHT, Twitter Bans Dehumanization

Defining the Terms in Your Argument

The Limitations of Dictionary Definitions

Stipulation and Negation: Stating What a Term Is and Is Not

Defining Vague and Ambiguous Terms

Research Skill: Using Encyclopedias to Find Definitions

Definition by Example

Argument Essentials: Defining the Terms in Your Argument

Extended Definitions

Strategies for Writing a Definition Essay

ISHMEAL BRADLEY, Conscientious Objection in Medicine: A Moral Dilemma

BRIAN WHITAKER, The Definition of Terrorism

Assignments for Definition

12. Logic

Induction

Argument Essentials: Induction

STEVEN DOLOFF, Greta Garbo, Meet Joan Rivers . . . (Talk Amongst Yourselves)”

Deduction

Argument Essentials: Deduction

SEAMUS O’MAHONY, Are We Living Too Long?

HILLARY CLINTON, Remarks at the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Women and the Economy Summit

Common Fallacies

Research Skill: Structuring Your Research with Generalizations and Specifics

Hasty Generalization

Faulty Use of Authority

Post Hoc or Doubtful Cause

False Analogy

Ad Hominem

False Dilemma

Slippery Slope

Begging the Question

Straw Man

Red Herring

Two Wrongs Make a Right

Non Sequitur

Ad Populum

Appeal to Tradition

Strategies for Uncovering Logical Fallacies

CHRISTOPHER CALDWELL, Drivers Get Rolled

WAYNE LAPIERRE, What Should America Do about Gun Violence?

Assignments for Logic

PART FOUR Incorporating Research

13. Planning and Research

Finding an Appropriate Topic

Invention Strategies

Evaluating Possible Topics

Strategies for Identifying Effective Research Paper Topics

Initiating Research

Keeping Research on Track

Research Skill: What Is Common Knowledge?

Sketching a Preliminary Outline

Strategies for Keeping Your Research on Track

Types of Sources

Research Skill: Popular vs. Scholarly Articles

Finding Sources

Databases

Encyclopedias

Statistical Resources

Government Resources

Other Online Sources

Multimodal Sources

Evaluating Sources

Relevance

Reliability

Research Skill: Evaluating Multimodal Sources

Argument Essentials: Evaluating Sources

Taking Notes

Note Taking and Prewriting

Working with Your Outline

Managing and Documenting Sources

Argument Essentials: Taking Notes

ALICIA OGLESBY, Safe Spaces

MEGAN YEE, Why “Safe Spaces” Are Important for Mental Health — Especially on College Campuses

14. Drafting, Revising, and Presenting Arguments

Reviewing Your Research

Research Skill: Reviewing Your Research

Avoiding Plagiarism

Argument Essentials: Avoiding Plagiarism

Building an Effective Argument

Argument Essentials: Checklist for Effective Arguments

Using Sentence Forms to Write Arguments

Argument Essentials: Addressing Opposing Arguments Using Sentence Forms

Revising

Oral Arguments and Presentations

The Audience

Credibility

Organization

Language

Support

Presentation Aids

JIMMY CARTER, Why I Believe the Mistreatment of Women Is the Number One Human Rights Abuse

15. Documenting Sources

MLA In-Text Citations

MLA Works Cited Entries

MLA-Style Annotated Bibliography

MLA-Style Paper Format

MLA-Style Sample Research Paper

ANNA HARVIN, The Place for Safe Space: Mental Health and the College Student Experience (student essay in MLA style)

APA In-Text Citations

APA List of References

APA-Style Paper Format

APA-Style Sample Research Paper

ANGELA MATHERS, The Controversy over Women in Combat (student essay)